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This variety of metonymy is the replacement of a direct name of a thing or phenomenon by the description of some quality of this thing or phenomenon.

Assigned features. Periphrasis intensifies a certain feature of the ob­ject described. It stands close to metonymy because it is one more way to rename objects.

Classification. There are such types of periphrasis as logical and figu­rative. Logical periphrasisis based upon one of the inherent properties of the object:

weapons = instruments of destruction;

love = the most pardonable of human weaknesses;

Êè¿â = ì³ñòî êàøòàí³â;


áóäèíîê - çàòèøîê â³ä â³òðó òà îïàä³â áóäå ïîãîäà, ÿê íå ïîòå÷å ç íåáà âîäà, (äîù)

figurative periphrasisis based upon metaphor or metonymy:

to marry = to tie the knot (metaphor); enthusiast = young blood (me­tonymy); money = mot of evil (metaphor).

Communicative functions. Besides rendering stylistic information, periph­rasis performs a cognitive function: it deepens our knowledge of the ob­jective world.

Wore examples:

cotton = white gold = á³ëå çîëîòî;

furs = soft gold = m 'ÿêå çîëîòî;

lawyer = a gentleman of the long robe = ëþäèíà ó ìàíò³¿;

women = the better (fair) sex = êðàùà (ïðåêðàñíà) ñòàòü;

medical men = people in white gowns = ëþäè ó á³ëèõ õàëàòàõ;

ordinary person = a man in the street = ëþäèíà ç âóëèö³;

wife = my better half = ìîÿ êðàùà ïîëîâèíà;

policeman = guardian of public order = îõîðîíåöü ïðàâîïîðÿäêó.

oil = black gold = ÷îðíå çîëîòî;

"Æèãóëèê", ìàáóòü, àæ òåïåð â³ä÷óâøè ñâî¿ ðàíè, çàâîäèòèñÿ

íå çàõîò³â, ³ Ñêëÿð ïîòðþõèêàâ äî ðèíêîâî¿ ïëîù³ ñïîñîáîì

Àäàìà ³ ªâè. òîáòî ï³øêè.

EUPHEMISM

It is a word or word-combination which is used to replace an un­pleasantly sounding word or word-combination.

Assigned features.Euphemism might be viewed as periphrasis: they have the same mechanism of formation. Strictly speaking, euphemisms are not stylistic devices but expressive means of language: most of them are registered in dictionaries.

Classification. Euphemisms may be classified according to the spheres of their application and grouped the following way:

1. Religious euphemisms: devil = the dickens, the deuce, old Nick; God = Lord, Almighty, Heaven, goodness. ×îðò = ëóêàâèé, íå÷èñòèé, íå÷èñòà ñèëà, íå÷èñòèé äóõ, çëèé äóõ, ëèõèé äóõ, äóõ òüìè (ï³òüìè), äóõ òåìíîòè, äóõ ìëè, ëèõèé, ÷îðíèé, ÷îðíà ñèëà; òîé, ùî íå ïðîòè íî÷³ çãàäóâàòè; Áîã = Âñåâèøí³é, âñåñèëüíèé, òâîðåöü.


2. Moral euphemisms: to die = to be gone, to expire, to be no .more,
to depart, to decease, to gowest, to join the majority, to pass aw
dead= d, departed, late; a whore= a woman of a certain type;

an obscenity afour-letter word. Ïîìåðòè = óïîêî¿òèñÿ, ñïî÷èòè,
êðàùèé/ïîòîéá³÷íèé ñâ³ò), ïðåñòàâèòèñÿ,ñê³í÷èòèñÿ,
ï³òè äîïðàîòö³â: ìåðòâèé= ïîê³éíèé, íåæèâèé ë³ïíèé;

îðåõà òè = ãîâîðèòè íåïðàâäó, âèãàäóâàòè, âè ³òè,

ôàíòàçóâàòè, çàãîâîðþâàòèñÿ; êðàñòè= çàáèðàòè ëèøêè; áðàòè

. ùî ïîãàíî ëåæèòü; ñòàðèé= ëþäèíà ïîõèëîãî â:
ïðîñòèòóòêè= ïðàö³âíèêè ñôåðè ñåêñóàëüíîãî î øÿ;

ãîð³ëêà = ã³ðêà, ç³ëëÿ, çåëåíèé çì³é, ãð³øíà âîäà, ñêëÿíèé 6
âåñ
: æèâèöÿ, ñîðîêàãðàäóñíà.

vledical euphemisms: lunatic asylum = mental hospital, mad­
house: idiots= mentally abnormal, low, medium and high-grade mental
cripple= invalid; insane = person of unsoundmind.
Áîæåâè¿ìø²ïñèõ³àòðè÷íà ë³êàðíÿ = áóäèíîê äëÿ äóøåâíî õâîðèõ,
æîâòèé γì; äóðåíü= ðîçóìîâî â³äñòàëèé, íå ñïîâíà ðîçóìó, íå
âñ³ è íå âèñòà÷àº; òÿæêî õâîð³òè= äèõàòè íà ëàäàí.

4. Political euphemisms: starvation - undernourishment; revolt,
revolution
- ;, poor people
= less fortunate elements; absence of

wages and salaries = delay in payment; profit= savings. Ñòðàéê = ïíåòðàö³ÿ ïðîòåñòó; æåáðàê =ïðîõà÷; âèãíàòè =âêàçàòè íà

âèðÿäèòè; áåçïëàòíî= çà ñïàñè
á³äí³ñòü- íåñòàòã òà.

Communicative function. Euphemisms make speech more polite, cul­tured, delicate, acceptable in a certain situation.

Note.Euphemisms have their antipodes which might be called disphe­misms.

Disphemisms are conspicuously rough, rude and impolite words and
word-combinations. The speaker disphemisms to express his n.

alive emotions, such as irritation, spue» hate, scorn, mockery, animosity. Here are some of them:

to die= to kick the buckt

to urinate= to pi

a German soldier (W. W. II)= krauthead; egro= kinky-hc

to treat someone badly,unj. ;\>e someone die finger;

îáëè÷÷ÿ = ìîðäà, ðèëî, ïèêà, áóäêà;


 




ïîìåðòè = îäóá³òè, äóáà âð³çàòè, çäîõíóòè; ãðóá³ÿí = õàìëî.

METAPHOR

Metaphor is the second figure of quality. Metaphor, like metonymy, is also the result of transference of the name of one object to another ob­ject. However, metaphoric transference is of different nature: it is based upon similarity of the objects (not contiguity).

Classification. The nature of metaphor is versatile, and metaphors may be classified according to a number of principles.

1. According to the pragmatic effect produced upon the addressee met­
aphors are subdivided into trite (or dead) and genuine (or original). Dead
metaphors
are fixed in dictionaries. They often sound banal and hackneyed,
like cliches:

to prick up one's ears; the apple of one's eye; to burn with desire;

seeds of evil; a flight of imagination; floods of tears; õìàðà çàïèòàíü;

ïîò³ê åìîö³é/ñë³ç; áðàòèñÿ çà ðîçóì; ïåðåìèâàòè ê³ñòî÷êè;

çàãîñòðþâàòè óâàãó; ë³çòè â ãîëîâó; ñïàäàòè íà äóìêó. Original metaphorsare not registered in dictionaries. They are creat­ed in speech by speakers' imagination. They sound fresh and expressive, unexpected and unpredictable:

Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be

chewed and digested.

We all want a little patching and repairing from time to time.

The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees.

Çîëîòî ìèñòåöòâà ç ïåðåëÿêîì ñïëàâèòè, äîáóòè ç áðåõí³ -

íåíàä³éíà àëõ³ì³ÿ.

Äå êîòèòüñÿ ì³æ ãîëóáèõ ëóã³â Õìàðèíà í³æíà ç á³ëèìè ïëå÷èìà,

ß ïðîäàþ ñîíöÿ - îðàíæåâ³, òóã³. Ç òðèâîæíèìè ìóçè÷íèìè î÷èìà*.

Äèì ðîçãîðòຠêðèëà ³ ïîðèâຠç ñîáîþ âîãîíü. Ñå. âæå íå ä³òè â.

÷åðâîíèõ ñï³äíè÷êàõ. Ñå ùîñü âåëèêå, çàâçÿòå, ñåðäèòèé çâ³ð,

ùî õî÷å ñêèíóòü ç ãðóäåé âàãó, ùî ïðîñòÿãຠñï³äñïîäó ëàïè Ë

ñèí³ìè æèëàìè, äóøèòü é ï³äãîðòຠï³ä ñåáå. Ðîççÿâëÿº êðèâàâó.

ïàùó é æåðå. Ðâå çóáîì é ëþòóº.

2. According to the degree of their stylistic potential metaphors are clas­
sified into nominational. cognitiveand imaginative(or figurative). Nom-


jnationaLmetaphorsdo not render any stylistic information. They are in­tended to name new objects or phenomena of the objective world. A nomina-metaphor is a purely technical device of nomination, when a new notion imed by means of the old vocabulary:

the arm of the chain the foot of the hill, í³æêà ñòîëó, êðèëî áóäèíêó. òþïàòêà, êîë³ííà ÷àøå÷êà, ðóêàâ ð³÷êè, ãðåá³íü õâèë³, ãëàâà êíèãè, ïîâ³ðíèêè àâòîìîá³ëÿ. Nominational metaphor is a source of lexical homonymy. When an object obtains a quality which is typical of another object, cog­nitive metaphoris formed: One more day has died.

rtty idea has come to me. The road lead Jack there. The sight took John's attention. The shore was drowning in the fog.

. ÷ðåñë³äóâàëî â³ä÷óòòÿ, í³áè çà íèì ñòåæàòü. Íàâ÷àííÿ ïîñóâàëîñÿ ïîâîë³, àëå âñå æ ïîñóâàëîñÿ. ×àñ ³øîâ, ñîííå âñòàâàëî ³ snoev å³îàëî íà ãîðèçîíò³. Being a source of lexical polysemy, cognitive metaphors do not possess great stylistic value.

The most expressive kind of metaphor is imaginative metaphor.Imag­inative metaphors are occasional and individual. They are bright, image-bear­ing, picturesque and poetic:

Patricia's eyes were pools of still water.

Time was bleeding away.

If there is enough rain, the land will shout with grass.

Îòðóéí³ âîäè íåíàâèñò³ êëåêîòàëè äîâêîëà Êåòë³í. çä³éìàëèñÿ

âèùå é âèùå, ï³äñòóïàëè áî ãðóäåé, äî øè¿. õàïàëè â ñâî¿ ìåðòâ³

ñòèñêè, íå äàâàëè äèõàòè, íå äàâàëè .æèòè.

×îðíå îçåðî ÿðìàðêó âëèâàºòüñÿ cm ïóì êîì â êàïëèöþ: îäí³

éäóòü, äðóã³ âèõîäÿòü.

Ó ðîçëîãîìó ïîëóìèñêó äîëèò³, ùî ïî ñàì³ â³íèÿ çàòåêëà ñîíèåì.

سîáðîîèòüñÿ. âèðóº ÿðìàðîê. 3. Metaphors may be also classified according to their structure (or ac­cording to complexity of image created). There are such metaphors as sim­ple(or elementary) and prolonged(or sustained). A simple metaphorcon­sists of a single word or word-combination expressing indiscrete notion:

The leaves were falling sorrowfully.


 




A good book is the best of friends. The wind was a torrent of darkness. ×àñ ³äå.

Äåíü òÿãíåòüñÿ äîâãî. Íåáî íàñóïèëîñü õìàðàìè. A sustained metaphorappears in cases when a word which has been

lsed metaphorically makes other words of the sentence or paragraph also

ealize their metaphoric meanings:

The average New Yorker is caught in a Machine. He whirls along, he is dizzy, he is helpless. If he resists, the Machine will mangle him. If he does not resist, it will daze him first with its glittering reiterations^ so that when the mangling comes he is past knowing. Ìè íàõèëèëè íàø³ îáëè÷÷ÿ íàä óðâèùåì âíèç, ³ êîëè î÷³ íàø³ äîá³ãëè, ìèíàþ÷è õàîñ ïîëàìàíèõ ñêåëü òà äèêèõ ðîñëèí, äî áåðåãà ìîðÿ, ìè óçäð³ëè, ÿê âîíî òð³ïàëîñü òèõî â ñ³òö³ ÿñêðàâèõ áë³ê³â. íà÷å çëîâëåíå â íåâ³ä ç ñèí³õ, çåëåíèõ ³ ðîæåâèõ ìîòóçîê, à êð³çü òó ñ³òêó íà íàñ äèâèëàñü ìîçà¿êà äíà: ô³îëåòîâ³ ïëÿìè ãóñòèõ âîäîðîñòåé, áëàêèòí³ î÷³ ï³äâîäíèõ ï³ñê³â, ñòàðà áðîíçà ³ òåìíî-ñèíÿ åìàëü, ùî çëèâàëèñü â îäèí âîãíÿíèé ñïëàâ. Çàâîðóøèëèñü êëÿò³ ïèòàííÿ, êëÿò³ äóìêè ³ áîë³; âîíè çâ³äóñ³ëü ë³çëè â ãîëîâó, ñïðàâëÿëè òàì ³ ïîõîðîíè, ³ ïîìèíêè. ² âæå î÷åé ³ ñåðöÿ íå ò³øèâ í³ äèòÿ÷èé øåï³ò êîëîñó, í³ òèõèé çîðÿíèé ïèë. í³ ì³ñÿ÷íå ìàðåâî. In fact, a sustained metaphor is a sequence of simple metaphors, most of

vhich are cognitive. This chain of simple metaphors unfolds the meaning of

he first, initial metaphor.

Communicative functions. Metaphor is one of the most powerful means

}f creating images. Its main function is aesthetic. Its natural sphere of usage

s poetry and elevated prose.

Additional features. Canonized metaphors tend to become symbols. A

symbol is an object which stands for something else. It is a reference in

ipeech or in writing which is made to stand for ideas, feehngs, events, or

xmditions. A symbol is usually something tangible or concrete which evokes

>omething abstract. The following are standard symbols in the context of

English and Ukrainian cultures:

the rose often stands for love, the dove stands for peace, the crosi stands for Christianity, the red colour stands for passion, the at spades stands for death.


> metaphors

ô It's useful to see the concept of metaphor as part of a scale which runs from the literal to the non-literal use of language.

• A literal statement is one which refers to the actual material world in
plain terms. For instance — 'This table is made of wood'.

• At the other extreme, and in the words of a popular song, we fmd the
statement:

'The sun is a big yellow duster, polishing the blue, blue sky'

• This makes a much bigger demand on our imagination and on our willing­ness to step outside the rational, literal world.

• This metaphor can be analysed as follows. The sun is being compared to a duster. This idea is interesting because dusters are often yellow like the sun. Further, just as the sun appears to move in the sky, removing grey clouds, a duster moves to polish a surface and clear it of dust. In the con­text of a pop song, the idea is witty and entertaining in a lighthearted way.

• Contrast this more serious metaphor:

Now does he feel

His filthy murders sticking on his hands

• This is from Macbeth. The image is extremely vivid as the murderer's sense of guilt is conveyed to the audience by combining the abstract guilt and the material sticky blood.

• Metaphor is extremely economic communication. Several layers of mean­ing can be conveyed at the same time.

• Advertisers make effective use of metaphor and other images because they have a restricted amount of space, and this space is very costly. A phrase such as 'the sunshine breakfast' is more effective than a state­ment which might read: 'Have our cereal for your breakfast and you'll enjoy it. It will give you energy and nutrition because the corn's been grown in a sunny climate.'

EPITHET

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