This variety of metonymy is the replacement of a direct name of a thing or phenomenon by the description of some quality of this thing or phenomenon.

Assigned features. Periphrasis intensifies a certain feature of the ob­ject described. It stands close to metonymy because it is one more way to rename objects.

Classification. There are such types of periphrasis as logical and figu­rative. Logical periphrasisis based upon one of the inherent properties of the object:

weapons = instruments of destruction;

love = the most pardonable of human weaknesses;

Київ = місто каштанів;

будинок - затишок від вітру та опадів буде погода, як не потече з неба вода, (дощ)

to marry = to tie the knot (metaphor); enthusiast = young blood (me­tonymy); money = mot of evil (metaphor).

cotton = white gold = біле золото;

furs = soft gold = m 'яке золото;

lawyer = a gentleman of the long robe = людина у мантії;

women = the better (fair) sex = краща (прекрасна) стать;

ordinary person = a man in the street = людина з вулиці;

wife = my better half = моя краща половина;

EUPHEMISM

It is a word or word-combination which is used to replace an un­pleasantly sounding word or word-combination.

Assigned features.Euphemism might be viewed as periphrasis: they have the same mechanism of formation. Strictly speaking, euphemisms are not stylistic devices but expressive means of language: most of them are registered in dictionaries.

Classification. Euphemisms may be classified according to the spheres of their application and grouped the following way:

1. Religious euphemisms: devil = the dickens, the deuce, old Nick; God = Lord, Almighty, Heaven, goodness. Чорт = лукавий, нечистий, нечиста сила, нечистий дух, злий дух, лихий дух, дух тьми (пітьми), дух темноти, дух мли, лихий, чорний, чорна сила; той, що не проти ночі згадувати; Бог = Всевишній, всесильний, творець.

2. Moral euphemisms: to die = to be gone, to expire, to be no .more,
to depart, to decease, to gowest, to join the majority, to pass aw
dead= d, departed, late; a whore= a woman of a certain type;

an obscenity — afour-letter word. Померти = упокоїтися, спочити,
кращий/потойбічний світ), преставитися,скінчитися,
піти допраотців: мертвий= покійний, неживий ліпний;

ореха ти = говорити неправду, вигадувати, ви іти,

фантазувати, заговорюватися; красти= забирати лишки; брати

. що погано лежить; старий= людина похилого в:
проститутки= працівники сфери сексуального о шя;

горілка = гірка, зілля, зелений змій, грішна вода, скляний 6
вес : живиця, сорокаградусна.

vledical euphemisms: lunatic asylum = mental hospital, mad­
house: idiots= mentally abnormal, low, medium and high-grade mental
cripple= invalid; insane = person of unsoundmind.
БожевиїмшІпсихіатрична лікарня = будинок для душевно хворих,
жовтий Оім; дурень= розумово відсталий, не сповна розуму, не
всі и не вистачає; тяжко хворіти= дихати на ладан.

4. Political euphemisms: starvation - undernourishment; revolt,
revolution - ;, poor people = less fortunate elements; absence of

wages and salaries = delay in payment; profit= savings. Страйк = пнетрація протесту; жебрак =прохач; вигнати =вказати на

Disphemisms are conspicuously rough, rude and impolite words and
word-combinations. The speaker disphemisms to express his n.

alive emotions, such as irritation, spue» hate, scorn, mockery, animosity. Here are some of them:

to die= to kick the buckt

to urinate= to pi

a German soldier (W. W. II)= krauthead; egro= kinky-hc

to treat someone badly,unj. ^;\>e someone die finger;

обличчя = морда, рило, пика, будка;

померти = одубіти, дуба врізати, здохнути; грубіян = хамло.

METAPHOR

Metaphor is the second figure of quality. Metaphor, like metonymy, is also the result of transference of the name of one object to another ob­ject. However, metaphoric transference is of different nature: it is based upon similarity of the objects (not contiguity).

Classification. The nature of metaphor is versatile, and metaphors may be classified according to a number of principles.

1. According to the pragmatic effect produced upon the addressee met­
aphors are subdivided into trite (or dead) and genuine (or original). Dead
metaphorsare fixed in dictionaries. They often sound banal and hackneyed,
like cliches:

to prick up one's ears; the apple of one's eye; to burn with desire;

seeds of evil; a flight of imagination; floods of tears; хмара запитань;

потік емоцій/сліз; братися за розум; перемивати кісточки;

загострювати увагу; лізти в голову; спадати на думку. Original metaphorsare not registered in dictionaries. They are creat­ed in speech by speakers' imagination. They sound fresh and expressive, unexpected and unpredictable:

Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be

chewed and digested.

We all want a little patching and repairing from time to time.

The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees.

Золото мистецтва з переляком сплавити, добути з брехні -

ненадійна алхімія.

Де котиться між голубих лугів Хмарина ніжна з білими плечима,

Я продаю сонця - оранжеві, тугі. З тривожними музичними очима*.

Дим розгортає крила і пориває з собою вогонь. Се. вже не діти в.

червоних спідничках. Се щось велике, завзяте, сердитий звір,

що хоче скинуть з грудей вагу, що простягає спідсподу лапи Л

синіми жилами, душить й підгортає під себе. Роззявляє криваву.

пащу й жере. Рве зубом й лютує.

2. According to the degree of their stylistic potential metaphors are clas­
sified into nominational. cognitiveand imaginative(or figurative). Nom-

jnationaLmetaphorsdo not render any stylistic information. They are in­tended to name new objects or phenomena of the objective world. A nomina-metaphor is a purely technical device of nomination, when a new notion imed by means of the old vocabulary:

the arm of the chain the foot of the hill, ніжка столу, крило будинку. тюпатка, колінна чашечка, рукав річки, гребінь хвилі, глава книги, повірники автомобіля. Nominational metaphor is a source of lexical homonymy. When an object obtains a quality which is typical of another object, cog­nitive metaphoris formed: One more day has died.

rtty idea has come to me. The road lead Jack there. The sight took John's attention. The shore was drowning in the fog.

. чреслідувало відчуття, ніби за ним стежать. Навчання посувалося поволі, але все ж посувалося. Час ішов, сонне вставало і snoev еіоало на горизонті. Being a source of lexical polysemy, cognitive metaphors do not possess great stylistic value.

The most expressive kind of metaphor is imaginative metaphor.Imag­inative metaphors are occasional and individual. They are bright, image-bear­ing, picturesque and poetic:

Patricia's eyes were pools of still water.

Time was bleeding away.

If there is enough rain, the land will shout with grass.

Отруйні води ненависті клекотали довкола Кетлін. здіймалися

вище й вище, підступали бо грудей, до шиї. хапали в свої мертві

стиски, не давали дихати, не давали .жити.

Чорне озеро ярмарку вливається cm пум ком в каплицю: одні

йдуть, другі виходять.

У розлогому полумиску долиті, що по самі віния затекла сонием.

Шіоброоиться. вирує ярмарок. 3. Metaphors may be also classified according to their structure (or ac­cording to complexity of image created). There are such metaphors as sim­ple(or elementary) and prolonged(or sustained). A simple metaphorcon­sists of a single word or word-combination expressing indiscrete notion:

The leaves were falling sorrowfully.

A good book is the best of friends. The wind was a torrent of darkness. Час іде.

День тягнеться довго. Небо насупилось хмарами. A sustained metaphorappears in cases when a word which has been

lsed metaphorically makes other words of the sentence or paragraph also

ealize their metaphoric meanings:

The average New Yorker is caught in a Machine. He whirls along, he is dizzy, he is helpless. If he resists, the Machine will mangle him. If he does not resist, it will daze him first with its glittering reiterations^ so that when the mangling comes he is past knowing. Ми нахилили наші обличчя над урвищем вниз, і коли очі наші добігли, минаючи хаос поламаних скель та диких рослин, до берега моря, ми уздріли, як воно тріпалось тихо в сітці яскравих бліків. наче зловлене в невід з синіх, зелених і рожевих мотузок, а крізь ту сітку на нас дивилась мозаїка дна: фіолетові плями густих водоростей, блакитні очі підводних пісків, стара бронза і темно-синя емаль, що зливались в один вогняний сплав. Заворушились кляті питання, кляті думки і болі; вони звідусіль лізли в голову, справляли там і похорони, і поминки. І вже очей і серця не тішив ні дитячий шепіт колосу, ні тихий зоряний пил. ні місячне марево. In fact, a sustained metaphor is a sequence of simple metaphors, most of

vhich are cognitive. This chain of simple metaphors unfolds the meaning of

he first, initial metaphor.

Communicative functions. Metaphor is one of the most powerful means

}f creating images. Its main function is aesthetic. Its natural sphere of usage

s poetry and elevated prose.

Additional features. Canonized metaphors tend to become symbols. A

symbol is an object which stands for something else. It is a reference in

ipeech or in writing which is made to stand for ideas, feehngs, events, or

xmditions. A symbol is usually something tangible or concrete which evokes

>omething abstract. The following are standard symbols in the context of

English and Ukrainian cultures:

the rose often stands for love, the dove stands for peace, the crosi stands for Christianity, the red colour stands for passion, the at spades stands for death.

> metaphors

ф It's useful to see the concept of metaphor as part of a scale which runs from the literal to the non-literal use of language.

• A literal statement is one which refers to the actual material world in
plain terms. For instance — 'This table is made of wood'.

• At the other extreme, and in the words of a popular song, we fmd the
statement:

'The sun is a big yellow duster, polishing the blue, blue sky'

• This makes a much bigger demand on our imagination and on our willing­ness to step outside the rational, literal world.

• This metaphor can be analysed as follows. The sun is being compared to a duster. This idea is interesting because dusters are often yellow like the sun. Further, just as the sun appears to move in the sky, removing grey clouds, a duster moves to polish a surface and clear it of dust. In the con­text of a pop song, the idea is witty and entertaining in a lighthearted way.

• Contrast this more serious metaphor:

Now does he feel

His filthy murders sticking on his hands

• This is from Macbeth. The image is extremely vivid as the murderer's sense of guilt is conveyed to the audience by combining the abstract guilt and the material sticky blood.

• Metaphor is extremely economic communication. Several layers of mean­ing can be conveyed at the same time.

• Advertisers make effective use of metaphor and other images because they have a restricted amount of space, and this space is very costly. A phrase such as 'the sunshine breakfast' is more effective than a state­ment which might read: 'Have our cereal for your breakfast and you'll enjoy it. It will give you energy and nutrition because the corn's been grown in a sunny climate.'

EPITHET